RT Journal Article
T1 Reducing the environmental footprint of the battery sector: assessment of a new recycling process from a techno-economic and life cycle perspective
A1 Gkousis, Spiros
A1 Arias Calvo, Ana
A1 Doninger, Anna
A1 Umlauf, Zoe
A1 Schmidt, Emily
A1 Barsukov, Igor V.
A1 Moreira Vilar, María Teresa
A1 Katsou, Evina
K1 Direct recycling
K1 Techno-economic assessment
K1 Life cycle assessment
K1 Circular economy
K1 Batteries
AB The rising demand for lithium-ion batteries increases the need for sustainable end-of-life pathways that recover critical materials with low environmental burden. This study assesses a novel direct recycling process for recovering battery-grade graphite from spent NCA lithium-ion cells using primary data from a continuous pilot-scale plant. A combined techno-economic and life cycle assessment is performed, supported by sensitivity analysis, scenario analysis, and Monte Carlo simulation. The process delivers low environmental impacts, with a global warming value of 4.06 kg CO2-eq per kg of graphite and achieves economic viability with a positive net present value at year ten. The minimum selling price is 9.87 €/kg when co-product revenues are included. The findings indicate that direct recycling provides an efficient and environmentally preferable route for high-quality graphite recovery. The technology can enhance circularity in battery value chains and reduce reliance on virgin resources in Europe and the United States.
PB Elsevier
YR 2026
FD 2026-05-07
LK https://hdl.handle.net/10347/47211
UL https://hdl.handle.net/10347/47211
LA eng
NO Gkousis, S., Arias, A., Doninger, A., Umlauf, Z., Schmidt, E., Barsukov, I.V., Moreira, M.T., Katsou, E. (2026). Reducing the environmental footprint of the battery sector: assessment of a new recycling process from a techno-economic and life cycle perspective. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 232, 108993.
NO European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme
NO Galician Government (Grant reference ED481B-2023–072)
NO Galician Competitive Research Group (GRC ED431C 2025/19)
NO Cross-disciplinary Research in Environmental Technologies (CRETUS Research Center, ED431G 2023/12)
DS Minerva
RD 21 may 2026