RT Journal Article
T1 Evaluating the trends and impact of COVID-19 on illicit drug and benzodiazepine use in drivers: A retrospective large-scale study based on oral fluid testing
A1 Blanco Ces, Miriam
A1 Lendoiro Belío, Elena
A1 Cruz Landeira, Angelines
A1 Cobo Golpe, María
A1 López Rabuñal, Ángela
A1 Castro Ríos, Ana de
K1 Illicit drugs
K1 Benzodiazepines
K1 Oral fluid
K1 Roadside drug controls
K1 LC-MS/MS
AB Background: The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted global drug markets, but consumption soon returned to pre- pandemic levels. Continuous monitoring of drug use trends is essential for effective public health responses. Methods: A total of 29,397 oral fluid specimens from roadside drug tests across Spain (January 2019–July 2024) were sent to the Toxicology Laboratory of the Institute of Forensic Sciences, University of Santiago de Compostela, for LC-MS/MS confirmation of on-site positives. Results were stratified into five periods to assess drug use trends and the impact of COVID-19. Results: Over 90% of drivers were male, and 85% were under 45 years old. Overall, 69.9% of samples were positive for cannabis, 64.9% for cocaine, 13.7% for amphetamines, 10.6% for opiates, 6.5% for ketamine, 5.4% for methadone and 6.6% for benzodiazepines/zolpidem; 56.3% showed poly-drug use. Cannabis use was higher in men, while amphetamines and benzodiazepines were more frequent in women (p < 0.001). Due to regional variability in drug use patterns and sample distribution, trends were analyzed across five geographic regions. Globally, during the strict lockdown, cocaine, opiates, methadone and benzodiazepines peaked, while cannabis and amphetamines declined, and ketamine remained stable. In the final period, cannabis reached its highest levels, and ketamine showed a marked increase. Cocaine and amphetamines returned to pre-COVID levels, while opiates, methadone and benzodiazepines declined. Statistically significant differences across the studied periods were observed in the different regions. Specifically, in the Northwest for opiates, methadone, and benzodiazepines (p < 0.001), as well as for cannabis (p < 0.05); in the East for opiates, amphetamines, cocaine, and ketamine (p < 0.001); in the Center for cocaine (p < 0.001) and ketamine (p < 0.05); and in the South and Islands for cocaine (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Although a slight impact on drug use was observed during the strict lockdown, consumption increased again for all substances (particularly ketamine), except for opiates, methadone and benzodiazepines.
PB Elsevier
YR 2026
FD 2026-02-26
LK https://hdl.handle.net/10347/46867
UL https://hdl.handle.net/10347/46867
LA eng
NO Blanco-Ces, M., Lendoiro, E., Cruz, A., Cobo-Golpe, M. López-Rabuñal, Á., & Castro-Ríos, A. de (2026). Evaluating the Trends and Impact of COVID-19 on Illicit Drug and Benzodiazepine Use in Drivers: A Retrospective Large-Scale Study Based on Oral Fluid Testing. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 282. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2026.113107
NO This work was supported by the Delegación del Gobierno para el Plan Nacional sobre Drogas, Ministerio de Sanidad, Gobierno de España, and the “European Union NextGenerationEU/PRTR” [grant number EXP2022/008675].
NO The authors would like to thank the Delegación del Gobierno para el Plan Nacional sobre Drogas, Ministerio de Sanidad, Gobierno de España, and the European Union NextGenerationEU/PRTR [EXP2022/008675], which funded both this study and the contract of M. Blanco-Ces. The authors also acknowledge the Xunta de Galicia (Galicia, Spain) for the support through the program for the Consolidation and Structuring of Competitive Research Units [2021-PG054].
DS Minerva
RD 6 may 2026